Evolution of Work

How We ‘Do Work’ Evolves with Digital Innovations

by Hybrid, Remote & Flexible WorkResearch
'Three Generations of Telework: New ICTs and the (R)evolution from Home Office to Virtual Office'.
Extracts and summary of the research by: Jon. C Messenger and Lutz Gschwind (2016)

Summary of the research: 

Remote working has evolved through three main stages since the 1970’s.

Stage 1: Home Office (1970’s to early 1990’s)

This first stage involved performing office-based tasks at a stationary (often home-based) location using information-based technology (i.e. relatively immobile desktop computer) alongside landline-based, fixed communication technology. 

Stage 2: Mobile Office (early 1990’s to early 2000’s)

The more mobile laptop computer, was used alongside mobile phone-based communication technology to transform static work into mobile work either at home or on the move.  

These first 2 stages are often referred to as “Old ICT” (Information & Communication Technology).  Most research to date around ICT use at work has been focused on these first two evolutionary stages.  

Stage 3: Virtual Office (later 2000’s to 2020)

The third stage, which includes the “New ICT” revolution, started with the launch of smartphones and tablets in the second half of the 2000’s and refers to the merging of both information access and communication into one device.  

It also coincided with the advent of powerful technology that connects any mobile device instantaneously to work via cloud-based systems and does not require work-based information to be physically stored on the device itself in order for work to be completed or to communicate with others.

The effectiveness of remote work increases when managers shift their perspective from work monitoring to information sharing. 

Research Conclusion

‘On the one hand, [digital technology has enabled] us to constantly connect with friends and family as well as with work colleagues and supervisors; on the other hand, paid work becomes increasingly intrusive into the times and spaces normally reserved for personal life. Crucial to this development is the detachment of work activities from traditional office spaces.

Today’s office work is largely supported by Internet connections, and can thus be undertaken from basically anywhere at any time. This new spatial independence dramatically changes the role of technology in the work environment offering both new opportunities and new challenges.

Scholars are increasingly concerned with the advantages and the disadvantages of new ICTs for aspects such as working time, WLB and OSH, as well as individual and organizational performance. 

Notes:
  • As digital technology continues to evolve, how we incorporate this technology into our working lives will change and adapt how we both view our work in addition to how we engage with our work. The development of Extended Realities and The Metaverse will take us into Stage 4…
A reminder of what the acronyms mean:

ICT: Information and Communication Technologies – i.e. digital technology that provides access to electronic information through portals such as wireless networks, mobile phones, tablets and other electronic devices. It includes the use of electronic communication tools such as email, social media and the Internet, for both work and home life. 

WLB: Work-Life Balance

OSH: Occupational Safety and Health.

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The Autonomy Paradox

Technology both helps and hinders autonomy

by Autonomy, Flexibility and Job ControlResearch
'The Autonomy Paradox: The Implications of Mobile Email Devides for Knowledge Professionals'
Extracts and summary of the research by: Melissa Mazmanian, Wanda J. Orlikowski and JoAnne Yates (October 2013)

A note: The original qualitative research for this paper was conducted during 2004 and 2005. It is therefore reminiscent of knowledge workers use of mobile email devices (e.g. Blackberries) and mobile phones (rather than smartphones). Although some mobile phones had internet connection capability from 2001, the first iPhone was launched in 2007.

Key quotes from the research:

  • ‘Although individual use of mobile email devices offered professionals flexibility, peace of mind, and control over interactions in the short term, it also intensified collective expectations of their availability, escalating their engagement and thus reducing their ability to disconnect from work’
  • ‘Professionals were ending up using [mobile email devices] everywhere/all the time, thus diminishing their autonomy in practice’
  • ‘[The] autonomy paradox reflected professionals’ ongoing navigation of the tension between their interests in personal autonomy on the one hand and their professional commitment to colleagues and clients on the other’
  • ‘The ongoing use of mobile email devices enacted a collective dynamic of escalating engagement that was attenuating the very autonomy that professionals were extolling. Having the freedom to use the device anywhere, anytime, the professionals ended up using it everywhere, all the time’.

Summary of the research: 

Autonomy is defined (in this article) as: ‘the ability to exercise a degree of control over the content, timing, location, and performance of activities’. It is traditionally either endowed (through status or seniority) or bestowed (e.g. through experience or length of service) on those who have earned the privilege to decide when and how they get their work done.

In this qualitative research, a number of professionals within interdependent teams were interviewed on their use of mobile email devices (i.e. blackberries). Within these discussions, the researchers came to understand that although these professionals felt that they had been empowered, through the use of a mobile email device, to be more responsive and available to their managers, colleagues and clients as a way of demonstrating their competence, work ethic and desire to succeed in their job, they individually and collectively changed the workplace norms around availability and responsiveness within their work environment.

The workers not only justified their increased technology use by stating that the constant checking of their email device:

  • allowed them to stay up to speed with and manage the flow of information that passed by them
  • gave them the ability to ‘watch work’ and a sense of control over their workload
  • ensured that they did not become a work bottleneck when they were not in the office
  • helped to enhance their sense of professional status and competence

However, the constant checking of their devices had a number of unintended consequences:

  • it shifted the norms, expectations and assumptions of others (colleagues, clients and managers) in terms of accessibility, availability and responsiveness times
  • it increased the number of hours spent looking at and responding to emails, thereby directly reducing their amount of downtime
  • it blurred the lines (temporal boundaries) between work and private time
  • it increased the levels of stress experienced by these professionals

The professionals justified their voluntary increased use of the devices as a way to demonstrate their level of autonomy and their ability to act as responsible and competent professionals. They also stated it to be a consequence of their ‘Type A’ workaholic type personalities that are an integral part of succeeding within a professional environment.

The very behaviour used by these professionals to showcase their workplace dedication, escalated tacitly into a normative expectation by others of what it means to operate within that particular professional environment. The individual actions of each professional subtly changed the collective behaviour of all professionals, increasing ‘the pace and volume of communication in the network, raising expectations of responsiveness and accessibility and leading to a collective reduction of autonomy as workers began to engage with work at all times’. i.e. the normative expectations around quick response times to emails became the very thing that restricted the personal autonomy that these professionals were trying to live out and capitalise on in their daily working lives, and to showcase their level of commitment to their jobs.

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Making Time Off

Making Time Off Predictable – And Required

by AttentionProductivityResearch
Extracts and summary of the research: 'Making Time off Predictable and Required'.

Research Authors: Leslie A. Perlow and Jessica L. Porter (October 2009)

Key quotes: 

  • “Responsiveness breeds the need for more responsiveness”
  • “When people are always “on,” responsiveness becomes ingrained in the way they work, expected by clients and partners, and even institutionalized in performance metrics”
  • “Our experiments with time off resulted in more open dialogue among team members…[and] sparked new processes that enhanced the teams’ ability to work most efficiently and effectively”
  • “Compared with those not participating in the experiments, people on time-off teams reported higher job satisfaction, greater likelihood that they could imagine a long-term career at the firm, and higher satisfaction with work/life balance”
  • “Consultants and other professionals can provide the highest standards of service and still have planned, uninterrupted time off”
  • “The payoff… [is] about preserving a strong, engaged pool of talent and, ultimately, cultivating productive work processes for the long term”

Below is a summary of the article from the Harvard Business Review: 

BCG ran a number of predictable time-off experiments with their consultants on a number of projects over the course of a year. Initially, the consultants and project leaders were sceptical and feared career progression and team member retribution. Once the benefits of completely ‘switching off’ from work (and work-based technology) either one evening a week or one full day a week, the consultants noticed how refreshed they were when they recommenced their work. They also found they communicated more and created more efficiencies within their work processes. Additionally, their overall work-life balance improved. 

The researchers found that it is essential that everyone in the team take off the same ‘type of time’, to reduce perceptions of unfairness. This is also more conducive to team members protecting the time that they and their colleagues have off. 

They also found that having ‘time-off goals’ were an important part of the success of the experiment in addition to open dialogue, with regular weekly check-ins – where team members were accountable to and supportive of each other in how to improve their ability to take the required time off. These discussions shifted more towards “how work was being done [rather] than on what work was being done” and towards “priorities, expectations, and problems”, rather than just the problems they were encountering. 

Implementing a work culture or norm that encourages teams to experiment with different processes, allows previously unquestioned ways of doing things. The option of transforming processes into more efficient, effective and integrative ways of working can also increase team collaboration and learning. 

The change in work culture needs to be underpinned with support, openness and encouragement from senior levels. The measurement and rewarding of employee performance also needs adjusting to include: how well team members communicate and maintain personal commitments while delivering against project needs; and how well senior team members model having a sustainable career while respecting personal and team members personal commitments. 

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